Cognition

Cognition is our ability to think, reason and remember.  It pretty much covers all thinking that goes on in our heads.  We are going to break cognition down into three distinct parts; memory, thinking and language.

Memory

When it comes to memory we will be focusing on one central question:

What causes us to remember what we remember and to forget what we forget?

Why do I remember my 14th birthday party or the girl I had a crush on in the fifth grade, but I do not remember that one girl who sits in the back row in my first period class?

Memory is defined as learning that has persisted over time.  There are several models that exist to explain memory- we will go over the most important two; the three-box/information processing model and the levels of processing model.

But before I go through the models an easy way to look at memory is through a three step process; encoding, storage and retrieval.  Encoding is the process of putting information inside of your head.  Think of encoding like typing a project on your computer.  If someone starts fling rubber bands at your head that while you are trying to study, that would effect the info you are trying to get in your head; called encoding failure.   The next step, storage, is holding the information inside your head; just like pressing CTRL S on your computer and saving your project.  If you bang your head one night and forget the name of your dog, you have storage failure.   Finally, there is retrieval, or getting the information you have stored back out of your head so you can use it.  This would be the same as finding and opening the document on your computer.  If you drink alot of alcohol and can't remember where you live, you have retrieval failure.  If you keep these terms in mind (encoding, storage and retrieval) the concept of memory becomes a snap.

Before looking at the model in any detail, I want you to understand that this model is just an idea.  In reality, memory occurs many different ways, all over the brain.  But this model creates a concept that simplifies the process.

Three-Box/information processing model

Sensory Memory

In order for anything to enter out memory, it must first be picked up by our senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing and smell).  This first stage of memory is called sensory memory.  Sensory memory (the hardest of the three types of memory to grasp) is defined as a slit second holding tank for all sensory information.  I like to think of sensory memory like the Niagara Falls.  The top of the falls is our brain/awareness and the water is all the stuff we are constantly sensing.  Most of what we sense we forget almost immediately, just like most of the water goes to the top of the falls and falls righ-t down.  In fact, there is just a VERY SMALL amount of information picked up by our senses that we pay attention to and goes on to the next stage of memory (short term memory).

Researcher George Sterling demonstrated that sensory memory exists, and that it only lasts a split second.  He flashed a grid of nine letters, three rows and three columns, to participants for 1/20 of a second.  The participants in the study were directed to recall either the top, middle or bottom row immediately after the grid was flashed to them (Sterling used a low, medium or high tone to indicate which row they should recall). The participants could recall any of the three rows perfectly.  This experiment demonstrated that the entire grid must be held in the sensory memory for a split second.  This type of sensory memory is called iconic memory, a split second perfect photograph of a scene.  If not asked what the letters in the grid were immediately after the flash, the participants would have no recollection of ANY of the letters.  Other experiments demonstrated the existence of echoic memory, an equally split second memory for sounds.

Most of the information in or sensory memory is not encoded, however some of it is encoded in the next stage of our memory: short term memory.  What determines which sensory messages get encoded?  Selective attention: we encode what we are paying attention to or what is important to us.  Five seconds ago, you did not feel your socks.  The feeling of your socks went into your sensory memory and right back out.  Right now you cannot help but pay attention to the feeling- thus you will begin to remember the feeling in your short term memory.

Short-term Memory

Also called working memory, short-term memory is everything you are thinking of at the current moment.  Short-term memory is also temporary.  If you do nothing with them, they usually fade in 10 to 30 seconds.  The short-term memory is kind of like a pier or dock.  If you put too many people on the dock, someone will fall off into the water.  Like the dock, the short-term memory can only fit a certain number of things before some fall off (forget).  The average short term memory is around 7 units.  For example, we can hold about seven numbers in our short term memory (that is why phone-e numbers are seven digits long).  Now, we can increase our short term memory by chunking information.  Chunking is grouping information into larger units.  For example, the phone number I grew up with was 914-835-2640.  That number is 9 digits long.  But to people in the 914 area code, they have learned to chunk (group) 914 together so it counts as one digit.  It is easier to chunk information if you make meaning out of it.  Think of the numbers 177618121945- these digits may seem really hard to memorize- but if you chunk them into meaningful units (in this case famous dates in US history)- 1776- 1812- 1945- then the task becomes much easier.

A popular example of chunking is called mnemonic devices: or memory aids.  ROYGBIV (for the colors of the visible light spectrum) or My very excellent mother just served us nine pizzas (for the planets) are examples of mnemonic devices (but I guess Pluto is not a planet- so get rid of pizzas and change nine to nutterbutters and everything is hunkydorey).

Now the MOST popular way to get information from our short-term memory into the next type of memory (long-term memory) is to rehearse the information.  Rehearsing is just repeating the information that you have in your short-term memory enough times so it gets transferred into the long-term memory.  Simple repetition can help our memory, but as we will find out later- creating meaning to the material helps even more.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory (LTM) is our limitless storehouse for information.  Now although the LTM is unlimited, memories can decay or fade over time.  LTM is broken down into two major types (declarative and non-declarative)

Declarative Memories (also called explicit memories) are our conscious memories that we have to put effort in to remember.  There are two tyoes of declarative (explicit) memories.

  1. Semantic memory: General knowledge of the world stored as facts.  If you remember the names of Columbus's three boats then you have a semantic memory.

  2. Episodic memory: Memories of specific events.  Think of this like episodes of your life; like remembering your 14th birthday party.

Non-declarative Memories (also called implicit memories) are unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have.  There are two major types on non-declarative (implicit) memories.

  1. Procedural memories: Memories of skills and how to perform them.  Riding a bike is a procedural memory.

  2. Classically conditioning: Anytime you have been classically conditioned, you form a non-declarative (implicit) memory.  When Pavlov's dogs salivated at the sound of the tone- their body remembered the connection between the food and the bell- that was not a conscious memory- thus it is non-declarative.

One unique example of a long-term memory that VERY few people have is called eidetic memory (commonly called a photographic memory).  This does exist but is extremely rare- what most people call a photographic memory is just a really good memory.  A true eidetic memory benchmark is someone who can see a list of 70 digits for less than a minute- then recite them forwards and backwards- and remember that list up to 15 years later!!!!

 

Ok that was the three-box informational processing model of memory, the other (and much more simple) model is called:

Levels of Processing Model

The Levels of Processing Model is just another way of looking at memory.  Instead of thinking of memories as long-term of short-term, this model looks at them as how deeply they have been processed.  They are deeply (elaborately) processed or shallowly (maintenance) processed.  If you repeat something over and over again to yourself, take a quiz on it- do well, but forget it soon after- that information was shallowly (maintenance) processed in memory.  If you give the information meaning while memorizing it (for example, relate it to your life or talk about it with friends) than you should deeply (elaborately) process the information and it will last much longer in your memory.

In both memory models, the last step in memory is to get the information back out of your head after your store it, which is called retreival.

Thinking

No matter how much you may try to deny it, you do think!!!  In fact, almost everybody thinks (although some not so well).  Trying to describe though itself, is both thorny and problematic because describing thought is in itself thought (ouch).  So instead, lets break down categories of thoughts.  We often think using concepts, which are rules in how we see everything in the world around us (basically the same thing as Piaget's notion of schemas).  Our concept of mom is very different from our concept of dad, which is different from our concept of lobster.  Very often we base our concepts on prototypes, or what we think is the best example of that concept.  For example, when I think of the concept of funny, the prototype Homer Simpson may pop up in my head.  If I am watching TV and some character is similar to Homer (my prototype of funny) than I may think of that character as humorous.

Another type of thought is called an image, which is a mental picture that we create in our mind of the outside world.  Do you think images have to be just visual?  You can probably have an image dealing with any of our senses.

Using our thinking to Solve Problems

Many researchers try to study thought by examining the results of thinking.  Researchers can ask participants to solve problems and then investigate how the solutions were reached.  This research indicates at least two different problem solving methods we commonly use and some traps to avoid when solving a problem.

Algorithms: An algorithm is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other foolproof method.  Some algorithms are incredible long (by trying almost every solution) while others are shorter.  Think about math class for a minute (I know it hurts but try).  You may be given a problem and told to use a formula to come up with the solution.  Sometimes you know of shorter ways to solve the problem, but your teacher wants you to use the algorithm regardless.  The algorithm takes longer than the shortcut, but if done correctly you are assured the right answer.

Heuristics: A heuristic is a rule of thumb or shortcut that generally, but not always, solves the problem.  Pretend there is a teacher in your school that grades papers based on heuristics.  They might know the reputation of Johnny is that of a great student and give them an A on a paper without even reading it.  Boris may have a reputation of being a C student and the teacher may give Boris a C also without reading the paper.  In both cases the teacher may be right using the heuristic, but it is possible that Boris worked his butt off and Johnny smoked the pipe that morning.  There are two types of heuristics that the College Board LOVE putting on the AP Exam:

The dog matches your prototype of a dangerous animal.  The big teeth and the stout body will probably want to make you stay away.  It is possible that the dog is very friendly, but the quick representative heuristic causes you to stay away.

Now it can work the other way as well.  Let's say you are walking down the street and see a bunny.

 

The bunny is smiling and hopping.  It closely matches your prototype of a harmless animal.  You may reach out to touch it and it bites your jugular artery and you bleed to death.

In this case your representative heuristic led you astray.  But in reality we need both the availability and representative heuristic to make quick judgments about the world around us (even though they are not always dead on accurate).

Other problems with our thinking

Sometimes overconfidence creates a tendency to overestimate how accurate our judgments are.  How confident we are in a judgment is not a good indicator of whether or not we are right.  In many studies, people who report extreme confidence in a solution are just as likely to be wrong as those who are not so sure.  Two closely related concepts to overconfidence are belief bias and belief perseverance.  Both of these concepts concern our tendency not to change our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence.  Belief bias occurs when we make illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs.  Belief perseverance refers to our tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted.  I see this all the time in high school.  Pretend you hear that Rahindi talked some smack about you.  You will start thinking that Rahindi is a real schmoolie.  Then you later find out that Rahindi never ever said those bad things.  The feelings you have developed about Rahindi still may not change even though you discovered evidence that should make them.

Another real issue to problem solving is the concept of rigidity (or mental sets).  This refers to our tendency to fall into established thought patterns.  Most people will use solutions or past experience to try to solve new problems ( they think "what worked in the past is bound to work now").  Occasionally, this this tendency prevents them from seeing a novel solution.  One specific example of rigidity is functional fixedness, the inability to see a new use for an object.  Just recently, I needed to change the batteries on one of my son's toys.  the problem was I could not find a regular flat headed screwdriver.

I spent hours looking for it and became pretty frustrated.  My oldest son looked at me and said "Dad, why don't you use a dime, like Mommy does".  I did not think about the possibility of using a dime because I thought of only a singular use of that object, spending it; thus an perfect example of functional fixedness.

Another obstacle to successful problem solving is confirmation bias.  Many studies show that we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true.  As a consequence, we may miss evidence important to finding the correct solution.  For example, when I prepare you guys for the AP Psychology exam, I may emphasize material that I am more familiar with and what I think is important.  What I think is important may be very different than what the AP testy designers think and emphasize on the test.  Thus my confirmation bias could hinder your success on the AP; in other words, do NOT trust me!!!

Even the way a problem is presented can get in the way of solving it.  Framing refers to the way a problem is presented.  Presentation can drastically change the way view a problem or an issue.  If you went to a doctor to get liposuction surgery and she said, "this surgery has a 95% success rate", you would be likely to go through with it.  But if the doctor said "if you have this surgery, there is a 5% chance you will die", you may have second thoughts.  The chances of success are the same in both cases, but the way the issue is framed can change your perspective.

Creativity

One last aspect of thinking we should discuss is creativity.  There is NO concrete definition of what creativity actually is (I guess no one was creative enough to come up with a good one).  We generally define something as creative if it is novel and fits the situation we are looking at.    We do know that there is little correlation (relationship) between creativity and intelligence.  Some researchers investigate creativity by examining the differences between convergent and divergent thinking.  Convergent thinking is thinking that is pointed towards one solution.  Divergent thinking is thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question.  Divergent thinking is more closely associated to creativity than convergent thinking.

Language

There was a time when I was younger that I would go clubbing and show off my dancing skills (I invented the sprinkler dance; really).

When I first walked into the club I would get my mack on and talk to girls by the bar.  When I took the action to the dance floor the music was so loud as to make normal talking impossible.  Thus I would have to rely on non-verbal cues of communication, like body language and hand or facial gestures.  Needless to say I was rarely successful whether on or off the dance floor.  The point being that language (whether verbal or non-verbal) is the way humans communicate with each other.

It is almost impossible to conceive of a world without language.  Although some argue that non-verbal language is just as powerful as verbal language, let's focus for a moment on the latter.  All language can be described with phonemes and morphemes.  Phonemes are the smallest unites of sounds in any language.   In the English language there are about 44 different phonemes.  There are many phonemes used around the world that we do not use.  My wife, who speaks Spanish, does this really cool rolling R phoneme that sounds sexy but I cannot do to save my life.  My Grandma, who spoke Yiddish, can do this funky throat clearing phoneme, that I can only do when I have a bad cold.  Some of the phonemes that we use, foreign speakers have difficulty pronouncing, like the th sound.

A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaningful sound.  Morphemes can be words, such as a and but, or they can be parts of words, such as prefixes or suffixes.  So language consists of phonemes put together to become morphemes, which make up words.  These words are spoken or written in a particular order, called syntax.  Each language has its own syntax, such as where the verb is usually placed in the sentence.  For example, in English, we out the adjective before the noun (white house) but in Spanish the noun often comes before the adjective (casa blanca).  By examining phonemes, morphemes and syntax (grammar), psychologists can describe different languages in detail.

Language Acquisition

Most psychologists are interested in how we first learned language and what kind of influence language has on the way we view the world.  The first stage of language acquisition is often called the babbling stage.  During this stage the baby is experimenting with various phonemes and if you listen closely to the cute babbling, you will here phonemes from ALL languages from all over the world.  So even though I cannot roll my R's or do that cool African Bushman clicking sound, my four month old can!!!  It takes a few months of listening to those around us so we can begin to limit our phonemes to the ones that we will need for the English language.  This is a great argument as to why we should teach second and third languages at very young ages (they already know the phonemes).

The next language acquisition phase is telegraphic speech. This is where babies combine words into simple commands.  Although an adult can understand what the child is trying to say, their speech has no syntax.  They may say "Bottle, TV now!!!" and we know they mean "Daddy, can you please go the the fridge, prepare my bottle, give it to me and put Sponge Bob on.  Thank you ever so much."  During this stage children begin using syntax, but often incorrectly.  For example, they might learn that adding the suffix -ed signifies past tense, but they might apply it at inappropriate times, such as, "Caleb hitted my head so I throwed the truck at his face".  This misapplication of grammar rules is called overgeneralization. 

There is no next stage of language acquisition- they go from telegraphic speech into complete sentences.  But there are two competing theories of how children learn language so well.  The first theory is rooted in Behaviorist BF Skinner's operant conditioning.  This theory states that when a child is rewarded for using a word (either by a smile or encouraging word) then they will keep saying the word.  Bad language rules are punished and good ones, rewarded.

Recent cognitive theorists have stated that children not given reinforcements still use learn language, so BF is full of it.  Researcher and philosopher Noam Chomsky believed that humans learned language WAY to fast for it to be learned purely through reinforcers.  He theorized that children are born with a language acquisition device, an inborn universal understanding of language where children just know how to learn language from birth (this is also called the nativist theory of language acquisition).  The true answers probably lies with a combination of both Skinner and Chomsky.

Language and how we view the world

Most of us assume that humans think about the world and come up with words to describe what is in our minds.  Psychologist Benjamin Whorf came up with an interesting concept called linguistic relativity hypothesis, that challenges the status quo and states that language may control the way we think, not vice versa.  He theorized that the limitations on the grammar and vocabulary in our language may create limitations on how we see the world.  For example, the Hopi Indian tribe in North America had very few words in their language for past tense.  Thus because their language did not address past tense, the Hopi Indians seldom ever thought about the past.  The implications of Whorf's idea are extraordinary.  If our language restricts our thinking, then just by changing some of our language rules and definitions, may change the way we view the world