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What the college board is asking for: In studying motivation, students learn about the forces that influence the strength and direction of behavior. They discover that although early theories of motivation focused on internal instincts, needs, and drives, later theories acknowledged the role of external incentives. Students also learn that more recent theories conceptualize motives into at least two distinct types: primary (physiological) and secondary (social). In the case of the primary motives-such as hunger, thirst, pain, and sex-psychologists have identified many of the neural and hormonal mechanisms that are associated with the motivational state. The motives for sex and aggression appear to be more complex than those for humger and thirst, involving both physiological and environmental mechanisms; however, even hunger appears to be influenced by environmental stimuli, particularly in the case of people who are obese.

The study of emotion centers on the complex interactions between brain and body that are associated with feelings of love, hate, fear, and jealousy. Different theories-such as James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schacter-Singer, and opponent-process theory- provide different explanations of the relationship between physiiological changes and emotional experiences. Central to much current theory and research is the concept of arousal; that is, the activation of several physiological systems at the same time, suggesting a relationship between task performance and level of arousal.

To be an instinct, a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned. We call this a fixed action potential. This salmon has a f.a.p to swim upstream to spawn. Instinct theory is inadequate in explaining the complex behavior in humans, but may be important in our understanding of phobias, aversions and gender.

To name a behavior is not to explain it.

Drive-reduction theory: this states that a biological need creates an aroused state that drives an organism to reduce that need. The aim of the drive-reduction theory is to maintain internal comfort, or homeostasis. Also, make sure you know that drives motivate us from within, while incentives drive us from the environment.

The arousal theory states that rather than reducting a physiological need, we are also motivated to increase arousal. Such as the rock climber pictured to the left. Psychologists define these as curiosity-driven behaviors. Too much stimulation can cause anxiety and too little stimulation can cause boredom. This optimal level of arousal was graphed by Yerkes-Dodson.

Hunger: a powerful physiological motive. The causes for hunger are complex. One discovery by Cannon and Washburn was that stomach contractions do accompany our feelings of hunger. Another cause for hunger is low blood glucose levels. The hyppothalamus regulates hunger through two centers that control eating. They are the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus. The lateral is considered the "on" switch and is activated by chemicals in the blood, namely leptin. The ventomedial is the "off" switch and when destroyed can cause great weight gain in

Psychological Motivators

Need for achievement: desire for significant accomplishment.

Need for Power: desire to have impact or control over others.

Need for belonging: we need to feel connected with certain others in enduring relationships

Need for approval: need to be complimented for a job well done. Remember this when you all become successful leaders. You will get more out of your subordinates.

High achievers are characterized by where there motivation comes from. Highl achievers are intrinsically motivated. This means that a person engages in a task for its own satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation stems from obvious rewards or avoidance of punishment and is learned. Van Gogh was intrinsically motivated. He only sold one painting during his entire lifetime.

There are three basic ingredients of emotion: physiological arousal, cognition, and behavior. Our cognition (thoughts, beliefs and expectations) help in determining the type and intensity of emotional responses. Emotions are individual, what appears pleasurable to you may mean boredom to another. Emotions are also physiological. When we experience an emotion, there is an activation of the autonomic nervous system. During emotional arousal, the sympathetic nervous system activates the body. The pupils dialate, mouth dries, skin perspires, respiration increases, heart rate increases, digestion slows, bladder and arteries constrict, glucose released in the blood, and adrenaline secreted by the adrenal glands. Finally, emotions are accompanied by a behavioral component. Facial expressions and gestures are the most obvious. Sobbing when we are sad, smiling when we are happy, etc.

James Lange Theory

The most crucial facet of emotion was that it is an aspect of what a person does (James, W.).

In fear we run, in grief we weep

Your experience of emotion is neither more nor less the awareness of our won bodily changes in the presence of certain arousing stimuli.

Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal.

Stanislavski's "role taking" method of acting supports this theory.

Knock against is that adrenaline, which causes bodily changes, is too slow to account for the quickness of our emotional reactions.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotional feelings and bodily arousal occur at the same time. The stimuli goes both to the hypothalamus and the cortex of the brain. Cortex produces behavior and emotional cognition, while the hypothalamus arouses the body.

Schacter's Cognitive Theory

The primary concern is with the mental factors of emotion. This label of emotion (anger, ffear, happiness) applied to bodily arousal is influenced by past experiences, situation and reaction of others.

Bodily arousal only gives raw material of emotional expression.